Increases in women's labor force participation rate and the employment rate
The women's labor force participation rate (comprising persons of 15 years and above) and the employment rate (comprising persons of 15 years and above) in 1998 were 50.1% and 38.5%, respectively. A trend of increase was seen from 1975 onwards, but this has leveled off in the last few years, with the 1998 employment rate seeing a downturn from the previous year for the first time. On the other hand, the men's labor force participation rate and the employment rate in 1998 were 77.3% and 62.3%, respectively. The men's employment rate leveled off in the late 1980s/early 1990s, and the men's labor force participation rate is now lower than in 1975.

Percentage of female part-time workers reveals a pyramid shape peaking in the forties
When a labor force participation rate graph is drawn up on women by age group, the peak periods of early twenties and late forties combine with a bottoming-out in the early thirties to present an M-shaped curve. Looking at female part-time employees (as a percentage of the population) by age group, the peak in the early forties reveals a pyramid-shaped graph. In this way, it is thought that in the second peak period of the M-shaped curve of labor force participation rate and employment rate, there is a high percentage of women performing part-time work (Figure 4).

Figure 4: Present state of employment by sex and age group

Notes:

1. The labor force participation rate refers to the labor force/population by age group.
2. The employment rate refers to the non-agriculture and forestry employment rate/population by age group.
3. The part-time employee rate refers to non-agriculture and forestry employees who work less than the average 35 hours per week by age group.
4. 1998 Survey.

Source:

Monthly Report on the Labor Force Survey, Management and Coordination Agency

Present state of labor force participation rates in other countries

• In terms of labor force participation rates of men and women in 1997, only the Republic of Korea reveals an M-shaped curve such as that of Japan for the labor force participation of women, while other countries reveal a contrasting U-shaped curve in the same way for men (Figure 5). Moreover, the labor force participation rate of women in all countries has increased in comparison to approximately 20 years ago.

Figure 5: Labor force participation rate by country and age group of men and women

Notes:

1. 1997 figures for the United States are for 15- to 19-year-olds.
2. 1979 figures for Norway are for under 20-year-olds.

Source:

Compiled from Yearbook of Labour Statistics, International Labour Organisation

Increase in women employed in the service industry in foreign countries

• A comparison of types of industry in which all employees are working by country and by sex reveals that there is a far higher percentage of women working in the service industry than in any other industry (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Comparison of occupation by country and type of industry

Notes:

1. Industries are classified according to the International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC, Rev.2). Industry adjustments have been made to countries which are in accordance with the ISIC Third Revision to conform them to the ISIC Second Revision.
2. For women, "Other" includes "Mining and quarrying," "Electricity, gas and water supply," "Transport, storage and communications" and "Non-classifiable industries.
3. For men, "Other" includes "Mining and quarrying," "Electricity, gas and water supply" and "Non-classifiable industries."
4. Figures for employees in Japan, Canada, Australia, the Republic of Korea and Germany are for persons of 15 years and above. Japan includes the hotel industry in "Other community, social and personal service activities."
5. Figures for employees in the United States and the United Kingdom are for persons of 16 years and above. The United States includes sanitation services in "Electricity, gas and water supply" (part of "Other" in the Figure) and the hotel industry in "Other community, social and personal service activities."
6. Figures for employees in Norway are for persons between 16 to 74 years.
7. Figures for employees in Sweden are for persons between 16 to 64 years.

Source:

Compiled from Yearbook of Labour Statistics (1998), ILO

Percentage of women working in managerial positions in Japan is remarkably low

• A comparison between working men and women by occupation reveals that in all countries there is a higher percentage of women working in clerical and service positions than men. On the other hand, in all countries, there is a higher percentage of men working in managerial positions and in manufacturing and transport. In particular, the ratio of women in managerial positions is remarkably low in Japan compared to other countries, at 9.3% (Figure 7).

Figure 7: Distribution of men and women's occupation by sex

Notes:

1. The length of the individual boxes in the figure displays the ratio of men and women respectively in the said occupation.
2. Occupations are classified for all countries, excluding Germany, according to the 1968 International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO). Occupations in Germany are classified according to ISCO 1988.
3. In the graphs for countries other than Germany, classifications refer to the various parts of ISCO 1968 in the following ways: "Professional and technical positions" refers to "Major Group 0/1 Professional, technical and related workers," "Managerial positions" refers to "Major Group 2 Administrative and managerial workers," "Clerical" refers to "Major Group 3 Clerical and related workers," "Sales" refers to "Major Group 4 Sales workers," "Services" refers to "Major Group 5 Service workers," "Agriculture, forestry, livestock farming, hunting and fishing" refers to "Major Group 6 Agriculture, animal husbandry and forestry workers, fishermen and hunters," "Production and transport" refers to "Major Group 7/8/9 Production and related workers, transport equipment operators and labourers."
4. In Germany's graph, classifications refer to the various parts of ISCO 1988 in the following ways: "Managerial positions" refers to "Major Group 1 Legislators, senior officials and managers," "Professional positions" refers to "Major Group 2 Professionals," "Technician" refers to "Major Group 3 Technicians and associate professionals," "Clerical" refers to "Major Group 4 Clerks," "Services" refers to "Major Group 5 Service workers and shop and market sales workers," "Agriculture, forestry, livestock farming, hunting and fishing" refers to "Major Group 6 Skilled agricultural and fishery workers," "Craft" refers to "Major Group 7 Craft and related trades workers," "Assemblers," refers to "Major Group 8 Plant and machine operators and assemblers," and "Elementary occupations" refers to "Major Group 9 Elementary occupations."
5. Figures for employees in Japan are for persons of 15 years and above. Cleaners are included in "Production and transport," not in "Services."
6. Figures for employees in the United States are for persons of 16 years and above.
7. Figures for employees in Germany are for persons of 15 years and above.
8. Figures for employees in Norway are for persons between 16 to 74 years.

Source:

Yearbook of Labour Statistics 1998, ILO

Present state of women working in agriculture, forestry and fisheries

• Of those women working in agriculture, forestry or fisheries, 2.227 million were involved in agriculture (1997), with women comprising 56.7% of the total agricultural labor force. Fourteen-thousand women were engaged in forestry (1995) (16.6% of the total labor force) and 51,000 in fisheries (1997) (18.3% of the total labor force).

Large differences in status in employment seen between men and women working in the agriculture, forestry and fisheries industries in Japan

• A comparison between the occupational standing of men and women working in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing reveals a large difference in status in employment of men and women in Japan compared with other nations. For example, women comprise nearly 71% of "unpaid family worker," while men comprise almost 75% of "employers or own-account worker" (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Composition of status in employment in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fisheries by country and by sex

Notes:

1. Figures for Japan have been calculated by totaling the agriculture, forestry and fisheries in the Management and Coordination Agency Labor Force Survey.
2. For Japan, the "Self-employed workers" and "Family workers" categories in the Management and Coordination Agency Labor Force Survey have been used to calculate totals for "employers or own-account worker" and "unpaid family worker." Since definitions of status in employment differ from country to country, it may be possible to gain some understanding of broader tendencies, but a simple comparison cannot be made. For example, family workers who receive remuneration at certain times are classified as "employees" in the majority of countries, but are classified as "family workers" in Japan.

Source:

Yearbook of Labour Statistics 1995, ILO. Labor Force Survey 1998, Management and Coordination Agency

Women's position in management does not correspond to the work they perform in agriculture, forestry and fisheries in Japan

• A look at the ratio of women who are actually employers or own-account workers in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing and in all industries in contrast to the number of female employers or own-account workers deemed appropriate according to their share in the respective industries, shows that there is a far smaller ratio in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing (37.7%), than in total industry (72.2%). This is also the lowest figure of all the countries (Figure 9). Consequently in the areas of agriculture, forestry and fisheries, it is supposed that women's position in management does not correspond to the work they perform in terms of management responsibility.

Figure 9: Comparison of the ratio of women "employer and own-account worker" in agriculture, hunting, forestry and fishing and in all industries to the ratio of total women in each sector

Notes:

1. Figures for Japan have been calculated by totaling the agriculture, forestry and fisheries industries in the Management and Coordination Agency Labor Force Survey.
2. For Japan, the "Self-employed" category in the Management and Coordination Agency Labor Force Survey has been used to calculate totals for "employers or self-employed."

Source:

Yearbook of Labour Statistics 1995, ILO, Labor Force Survey 1998, Management and Coordination Agency