PART1

Present Status

Chapter 1 Women's Participation in Policy Decision-Making Processes

1. Women's participation in national policy decision-making processes

   International comparison of women's participation
   The indices developed* by the United Nations Development Programme in regard to human development rank Japan seventh in the world in terms of the Human Development Index (HDI) and 12th on the Gender-Related Development Index (GDI), but Japan sinks to 34th place on the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) scale. (Figure 1)

   Figure 1: International comparison of HDI, GDI and GEM
   

   Notes:

   1. The indices and measures within parentheses indicate Japan's ranking.
   2. Japan's HDI, GDI and GEM rankings are among the 175, 146 and 94 countries, respectively, where measurement was possible.

   Source:

   Human Development Report 1997, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)

   Human Development Index: HDI

   HDI is a composite index which measures the degree to which basic human capabilities have been extended on average, with the three principal criteria of "healthy lifestyle allowing longevity," "knowledge" and "average living standard." Specific factors from which HDI is calculated include average life expectancy, education levels (adult literacy rates and school attendance) and GNP.

   HDI gives a median value for the entire population of a given nation, and does not reflect unequal opportunity distribution across different social groups.

   Gender-Related* Development Index: GDI

   While GDI is similar to HDI in that it represents the degree to which basic capabilities have been extended, GDI focuses on the inequality factor reflected in men's and women's respective levels.

   Like HDI, GDI is also based on average life expectancy, education levels and GNP, deducting, however, disparities between men and women as a penalty. GDI could therefore be defined as HDI adjusted for gender inequality. *The term "gender" distinguishes the sexes on a social and cultural basis, as opposed to "sex," which is based on biological factors.

   Gender Empowerment* Measure: GEM

   GEM evaluates whether or not women are able to participate actively in economic and political activities and take part in decision-making. While HDI and GDI focus on the extension of capabilities, GEM looks principally at whether such capabilities can be utilized and whether advantage can be taken of the various opportunities in life. Specific factors used in calculating GEM include the ratio of income earned by women in the workplace, the ratio of women specialists, technical experts and managers, and the ratio of women parliamentarians. * "Empowerment" means "to give power," and specifically refers to raising one's consciousness and capabilities to become a powerful political, economic, social and cultural presence.

   Two GEM elements are the ratio of women in government and managerial positions and the ratio of women parliamentarians. Looking at the top 50 GEM-ranked countries, even countries such as Malaysia, the Dominican Republic and Zimbabwe, which have a lower GEM ranking than Japan, still have higher ratios than Japan in this regard. (Figure 2)

   Figure 2: GEM constituents by country ("Ratio of women parliamentarians"/ "Ratio of women in government and managerial posts")
   

   Notes:

   1. Numerals within parentheses are GEM rankings
   2. The top 50 GEM-ranked countries are shown.
   3. The ratio of women parliamentarians is as of 1 January 1997. The percentage of women in government and managerial positions is for the most recent fiscal year for which the UNDP could obtain data when compiling these materials.

   Source:

   Human Development Report 1997, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)